⋆｡°✩ Unit 3.9-3.11: Washington's/Adam's Administration *ੈ✩‧₊˚

 Weighted: 10-17% °❀⋆.ೃ࿔*:･°❀⋆.ೃ࿔*:･ 1754-1800

    Despite both being official documents dictating the roles of the federal government, the switch from the Articles of Confederation to the Constitution was extremely significant in American history. With the Articles of Confederation falling apart due to weak authority, the Constitution effectively addressed these faults, finding a compromise that allowed states' rights to thrive even with federal government control. As explained priorly, separation of powers was also implemented with three separate branches of the government.

⋆ Legislative - Congress: makes laws, passes taxes, allocates spending. 

⋆ Executive - President: Recommends and carries out laws 

⋆ Judicial - Supreme Court: Interprets laws and the constitution

Checks and Balances were also essential as each branch could limit and "check" each other to ensure there are no power imbalances. For example, if Congress wanted to pass a law, the president could veto it or the Supreme Court could testify its constitutionality (later referred to as Judicial Review). The Bill of Rights focuses more on personal liberties and rights. They're the first 10 amendments on the Constitution and while you don't need to remember them it could be beneficial to be familiar with some. Now, for the president's role, the nation unanimously elected George Washington as the first president of the United States. This would be the first and last time a person would be appointed as president without an election. Washington's cabinet consisted of numerous significant historical figures. 

⋆ Vice President: John Adams

⋆ Secretary of Treasury: Alexander Hamilton

⋆ Secretary of State: Thomas Jefferson 

The role of treasury handles the nation's finances. With Hamilton being appointed secretary of treasury, he devised a financial plan that consisted of:

⋆ Paying off the national debt and letting the federal government assumes state war debt

⋆ Imposing high tariffs on imported goods to protect American industries 

⋆ Most notably, creating a national bank for depositing government funds and printing banknotes to stabilize currency

The last one was most controversial as anti-federalists thought it gave the federal government too much power and mainly benefited the rich elites. Even Jefferson opposed a national bank, calling it unconstitutional. However, Hamilton defended it and evoked the Elastic Clause, the right for Congress to make any law that deems "proper and necessary". Despite negative feedback, Washington sided with Hamilton and the first national bank was passed. Tensions between both parties began to rise especially after the Whiskey Rebellion. With one of Hamilton's policies being higher tariffs, when he noticed not enough funds were coming in from tariffs, he placed a tax on whiskey. As whiskey is made from grains, farmers were enraged as this ultimately targeted them. So, a group of angry farmers armed themselves and rallied to the government. Unlike Shay's Rebellion though, the government was able to quickly dismantle them through federally-aided militia. A party opposing the federalists formed and led with anti-federalist policies. From there on, the debate between federalists and newly formed democratic-republicans fired up the United States for decades on. 

    After two full terms, Washington decided to exercise his power and not run for a third time, officiating 2 term presidencies as the norm and becoming the 22nd amendment in 1951. In his farewell address, he cautioned against two major ideas: being against political parties and foreign alliances. Understanding anything about US history, this was very ironic. 

    Later on in the election of 1796, Adams won against Jefferson, making him president and Jefferson his vice president. Vice president co-campaigning wouldn't exist until the election of 1804, making two separate political party members partners in office. As Adams was a federalist and Jefferson a democratic-republican, this would soon prove very problematic. 

    Adam's presidency would become highly unpopular among democratic-republicans as many events received backlash by that party. For instance, during this time period, the French and British were at war with each other. While the US was familiar with both nations, they responded by remaining neutral just like what Washington had advised. However, the French was seizing US ships. This ultimately led to Adam's decision to send delegates to France in order to negotiate with three unknown officials, now referred to as X, Y, and Z. Well, the French people refused to negotiate unless they were bribed and when the message was received back in the states, Adams and many others were embarrassed and angry. With many speaking poorly of Adam and his capability as president, upset he passed his most controversial series of acts yet: the Aliens and Sedition Acts. The Alien act made deportation of immigrants easier, which many speculated was passed due to the high percentage of German and Irish immigrants living in the US who leaned toward anti-federalist policies. The Sedition Act banned any form of journalism or newspaper speaking negatively about the president or congress. This didn't just outrage democratic-republicans but also many federalists who believed this violated the first amendment. Therefore, some states like Kentucky and Virginia took action and created the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions which stated how states had the power to nullify a federal law if it broke the “compact” between states and federal government, which they felt did in this situation. 

    With much political discussion, it's important to remember the other people still there (non-white men). In 1790, the Indian Intercourse act was passed which regulated westward settlement between Natives and Americans. However, many settlers ignored it. Women, after seeing the success from the founding fathers, took up the role of raising educated virtuous sons as that was the most they could do as women to better the government. Slavery also began to become extremely distinctive between the North and South where there was a large clear supportive population of enslaved workers in the south and significantly less in the North, where some states were even tolerant of some African Americans. The Pickney Treaty was also established which finally settled a boundary between the US and Spain being the 31st parallel.

──── ୨୧ ──── thanks for reading!!!

⋆｡°✩ Unit 3.4-3.8 The American Revolution and AOC *ੈ✩‧₊˚

  Weighted: 10-17% °❀⋆.ೃ࿔*:･°❀⋆.ೃ࿔*:･ 1754-1800

    To be honest, the Revolutionary War itself in my opinion was not as insightful as pre or post war ideology. Like, pre-war there was so much debate and nuance in discussion that fostered so many intriguing shifts in beliefs and writing, and then the Revolutionary War itself was just a bunch of men fighting and dying. Nonetheless, there were some memorable events. 

    Of course, even though the colonists published the Declaration of Independence that didn't entail them to suddenly receiving freedom. Great Britain denied their requests and continued to fight. As mentioned previously, the American militia was not the strongest. Therefore, led by George Washington, the Continental Army was formed. Initially, they were still not very good and were ill-equipped, especially against the powerhouse that was Great Britain's militia during the time. Despite reluctance, African Americans also made up a portion of the Continental Army as Washington was very concerned over his smaller army. The first battle was the Battle of Lexington and Concord where Paul Revere famously shouted, "the British are coming!". While the American colonies had won some battles, their army could not sustain against Great Britian's for much longer. So, they requested external help. The Battle of Saratoga is known as the turning point in the Revolutionary War as the colonist's victory in that convinced the French to ally with them and provide military support, alongside influence from Benjamin Franklin as he grew immense popularity as a French delegate at the time. So, with foreign aid and a thirst for independence, the American colonies were able to defeat the British. In 1781, Great Britain surrendered at the Battle of Yorktown and by 1783, the Treaty of Paris was signed that officially declared and recognized the American colonies as an independent nation, now named the United States of America. 

     Now that the US was their own independent nation, they published their first federally established government constitution entitled the Articles of Confederation. Prior and during the Revolutionary war, each state had their own outline and framework of how their local government operated. The Articles of Confederation supported this as its basis was on very little federal government control and intervention of the states. This would soon prove to be a mistake though and would highlight the faults of state power over federal power. However, some beneficial legislation did pass out of the Articles of Confederation such as the Land Ordinance of 1785 which promoted public education and more notably, the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 which established rules for territories seeking statehood and abolished slavery in these newly formed northwest territories. While useful, it did not compare with the grievances illustrated through the Article of Confederation. As the US was still heavily indebted to Britain and France, the federal government needed a way to obtain funds. However, as described, the Articles of Confederation could not collect or impose taxes on states which also meant they had no money for things such an army. Most states were doing very financially poorly and during this time period, the US was broke. This would be especially relevant when discussing the effects of Shay's Rebellion.

        Daniel Shay was a Massachusetts farmer. While many were impacted by the nationwide poor financial situation of the US, farmers in particular were struggling the worst as many fought in the war and came back with significantly more debt. So, Shay and other farmers heavily affected by this armed themselves and began to riot. While they were shut down by the local Massachusetts Milita, this highlighted the weakness of the Articles of Confederation as many were concerned of the possibility of future similar uprisings and with no President or national army to defend, exacerbated the need to reform it. State tensions also increased drastically as the government could not regulate commerce, the ability to control policies that traveled through different states, and many bordering states could not come to a consensus with each other over various policies. Moreover, with the ability to pass laws requiring 9/13 state votes and 13/13 to make amendments to the Articles of Confederation, not much passed due to differing beliefs. Truly for the first few years of the United States, it more closely resembled separate nations instead one united country that fought together for this.

    In 1785, delegates from 12/13 states met together at the Constitutional Convention to discuss future actions. While it was initially called for to reassess the Articles of Confederation, delegates soon realized they needed a new constitution all together. From there, two groups formed over this issue: Federalists and Anti-Federalists. 

⋆ Federalists: Wanted stronger central government control

⋆ Anti-Federalists: Wanted to keep states' power and opposed a strong central government

There was also debate over how people would be represented; two plans were considered.

⋆ Virgina Plan: Representation by population and favored larger states

⋆ New Jersey Plan: Equal representation regardless of population and favored smaller states

As favoring a type of state over the other was not something that could be agreed upon, the Great Compromise was made which separated the legislative branch into two houses known as a bicameral. The House of Representatives was based on population and the Senate would have an equal number of votes from each state (2). However, when focusing on the vast enslaved population, there was even more division. Southern states wanted every slave to be counted as a person as their population was largely made up from enslaved workers and it would give them more representation and therefore power in the house. However, the North with fewer enslaved workers did not want to have less representation and power compared to the South. So, the 3/5th's compromise was created which meant each enslaved worker would count as 3/5ths of a person towards representation. At the same time, a new constitution was drafted that included many ideas like a more complex central government that'd split power into three branches: the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial. There, it reached the people for ratification. 

    Famous federalists Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison joined forces to work on a series of documents defending the new United States Constitution entitled the Federalist Papers. The plan was to write a total of 25 essays with the work divided evenly among the three men. In the end, they wrote 85 essays in the span of six months. John Jay got sick after writing 5, James Madison wrote 29, and Hamilton wrote the other 51 papers. However, anti-federalists were still weary of the Constitution and demanded it required a Bill of Rights which would guarantee individual liberties and rights. With the federalists agreeing to these demands, the Constitution was ratified in 1789, officially ending the Articles of Confederation. 

Additional Terms:

⋆ Valley Forge: the winter encampment of Waashington's Continental Army during the war

⋆ Olive Branch Petition: A document that was the final attempt by the colonists to avoid going to war with Britain; they declared themselves as loyal to the British to prevent further conflict 

Author's Note: How do you write like you're running out of time? Write day and night like you're running out of time? That's how I feel right now. 

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⋆｡°✩ Unit 3.1-3.4 Pre-American Revolution*ੈ✩‧₊˚

 Weighted: 10-17% °❀⋆.ೃ࿔*:･°❀⋆.ೃ࿔*:･ 1754-1800

    As you can see, the weighted percentage has increased substantially! That means this unit is more likely to appear on your AP exam compared to the last two. To be honest, you probably didn't even need to know the percentage to know this WILL be on your MCQ's and especially writing prompts. That's because unit 3 is the most foundational unit as this era turned the American colonies to the official United States of America. The time period begins in 1754 as this was the year the British and French entangled themselves into the French and Indian War. 

    The French and Indian war was a part of a larger global conflict called the Seven Year War that involved numerous other countries. However, as this is US history, we can get away with just focusing on the French and Indian war aspect. Conflict began due to territorial disputes westward of the Ohio River Valley. With British having a lengthy history of defeats against the French, they called their American colonies to form a plan that'd better prevent French expansion. As this entire war was fought on American soil, the colonists had an advantage of proximity and land familiarity. In 1754, delegates from 7 colonies met and Benjamin Franklin proposed a union called the "Albany Plan of the Union" that aimed to promote a more centralized government to better equip and unite against the French and Native population. However, due to concerns over state defense and taxation, the union was never adopted. Nonetheless, it set a precedent for future colonial alliances. In 1763, the British won and both nations signed the Treaty of Paris of 1763, which resulted in France ceding most of their North American colonies to the British; most importantly, the British gained all land east of the Mississippi River. However, just because the French gave up ownership of their territory does not mean the Native population, who've already been established there, would also agree to leave. 

    As a result, American colonists and Native tribes fought heavily over land. Due to so much conflict, this led to the Pontiac rebellion: a Native America uprising led by leader of the Ottawa tribe, Pontiac with assistance from nearby tribes. To suppress the rebellion, Great Britian sent out British troops as the American militia, as seen in the French and Indian war, proved to be insufficient for serious battles. To prevent further conflict, the British Parliament established the Proclamation line of 1763 which banned American settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains. This enraged the colonists as they felt they deserved the land after helping win the war. In addition, the colonists dealt with increased taxation due to large war debts, further exacerbating tension between the American colonies and Great Britian. Moreover, in unit 2 it was discussed how the colonists enacted something called salutary neglect where they disobeyed policies depicted in the Navigation Act without serious consequences. This gesture gave the American colonies a bigger sense of freedom and independence. However, as Britain became increasingly deeper in debt, they became far stricter. In fact, they passed a series of policies directed to the American colonies such as the: 

⋆ Quartering act of 1765: The requirement for colonies to house and feed British soldiers residing there

⋆ Sugar act of 1764: Tax on imported sugar and molasses outside of Great Britain

⋆ Stamp act of 1765: Most importantly, the tax on all printed paper

 The stamp act was so controversial because it was the first directly imposed tax, meaning it affected the majority, if not all, of colonists. In turn, the colonists argued that the British could not impose such taxes without any sort of American representation in the government. To that, the British Parliament disagreed, saying that the colonies did have representation through something called virtual representation where members in the Parliament represented the American colonies instead of direct representation more commonly seen in local governments. Unsatisfied, they began joining together and created two significant groups: the Sons and Daughters of Liberty and the Stamp Act Congress, both dedicated to ending this restrictive policy. This is where the phrase "No Taxation Without Representation" was born, arguing that the British Parliament could not impose such taxes without true American representation in higher authority. They simply wanted the same liberties and rights as British subjects. About a year later, the British listened and repealed the Stamp Act. However, in return, they appointed the Declaratory Act of 1766 which asserted that the British Parliament could pass any policies they wanted for the American colonies. Overall, the colonists were content with these results. That was until the British then passed the Townshend Acts of 1767 that levied taxes on tea, glass, and paper (ok stamp act part 2). From there on, far more rebellion broke out. Organized boycotts were upheld against British goods and many protested in groups on the streets. Most famously, British soldiers stationed in America got entangled with American colonists and shots broke out on the streets. This violent event was recognized as the Boston Massacre and was one of the first widespread indicators of abusive British tyranny all over America. Later on, the Sons of Liberty organized a historical event where they dressed up as Native Americans and dumped about 92,000 lbs of tea into the Boston Harbor in protest of the Tea Act of 1772 — now known as the Boston Tea Party. In response, Great Britain passed the Coercive Acts which closed down the port and trade until the tea was paid off, further enforced Quartering Acts, ect. The colonists called these pieces of legislation the Intolerable Acts. 

  Colonists who opposed British tyranny and rule were called Patriots and those who still supported Great Britain were called Loyalists. In 1774, patriots from all over the colonies met together at the first Continental Congress in Philadelphia. Some of these significant historical figures like John Adams, John Jay, and George Washington met and discussed how the American colonies needed more liberties and freedom from Britain. These meetings were largely influenced by Enlightenment ideas established in unit 2 such as John Locke's natural rights, social construct, and separation of powers. From there, members of the continental congress decided the only way for the American colony to truly obtain these ideas and liberties was by departing from British rule entirely. Although, the rest of America was still skeptical and even after the first battle, the Battle of Lexington and Concord, the majority were still not convinced of independence. It wasn't until Thomas Paine published "Common Sense", a book written in easy-to-understand language that argued for independence based on biblical and Enlightenment principals. The book grew widespread major popularity very quickly and by 1776 Thomas Jefferson, appointed by the Second Continental Congress wrote and published the Declaration of Independence, the American Colonies' formal declaration of separation from British rule. 

        "We hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all Men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness." 

                                                                                             — The Declaration of Independence, 1776

Author's Note: I love that quote so much and if you couldn't already tell this is my fav unit. Also, everything here is linked to the Enlightenment so use that for your context people! 

⋆｡°✩ Unit 2.7: Enlightenment/First Great Awakening *ੈ✩‧₊˚

  Weighted: 6-8% °❀⋆.ೃ࿔*:･°❀⋆.ೃ࿔*:･ 1607-1754

    With all of this discussion over colonial disputes and differences, not a lot of harmonious domestic interconnectivity is emphasized throughout this unit. However, nearing the end of the 1600's and early 1700's, there began two major ideological movements that helped bring the colony together and unify for the first time.

    Over in Europe, a popular movement occurred called Enlightenment. This development shifted away from traditional, religious thinking to a more rational thought process. Through innovative printing cultures, this concept reached America which spread fairly quickly due to its revolutionary new concepts. A very important one was, coined by author John Locke, the proposal of natural rights, the idea that all human beings were born with particular personal rights and liberties that cannot be taken away by higher powers. Moreover, another crucial one was the concept of a social construct, the idea that while the power to govern was in the hands of the people, they should also willingly give up some authority to a government that'd in return help protect and sustain their natural rights. Therefore, if a government was not meeting these standards, the people could overthrow it. The immediate success of these concepts in America would prove very essential in the next unit. Overall, with the progression of logical, scientific thinking these values were directly compared and competed against ideas presented in the Bible. With growing tension between Enlightenment and faith, the formation of a massive religious revival would also prove extremely valuable in this era. 

    With the expanding decline in religious faith due to the popularity of Enlightenment beliefs, dissatisfied preachers known as new light clergies began to promote religious beliefs founded on listening to your heart over your head (a concept based on German pietism). These teachings grew very popular and began sweeping all over America, fostering an active revival in Christianity again. There were two major figures that helped inspire and advance these teachings. Jonathan Edwards, a New England minister and scholar, preached sermons that combined both Enlightenment ideas with religion, complimenting both well. He truly laid out the foundations for the successful religious revival. The other was George Whitefield, a passionate traveling minster that used emotional appeal to really cement these religious ideas into common peoples' heads. All religious preachings shared the common theme of supporting democracy and repealing against tyrannical oppressive authority, another major intrinsic motivator seen in the next unit. 

    Both these movements were critical to fostering new liberties and advocation of the American people throughout the nation. Enlightenment had introduced these liberating concepts and the First Great Awakening fostered national unity that truly brought all differentiating colonists together. While these two movements were initially put against each other, without both supporting one another, American colonies would not have progressed this quickly or well. 

Additional Terms

⋆ Anglicization: the process by which a person or place is influenced by English culture

Author's Note: Fun fact: the Salem Witch Trials were happening around this time too. 

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⋆｡°✩ Unit 2.4-2.6: Rebellion in the Colonies *ੈ✩‧₊˚

   Weighted: 6-8% °❀⋆.ೃ࿔*:･°❀⋆.ೃ࿔*:･ 1607-1754

    With the physical regional differences established, moving moreover to the demographic makeup, it's important to remember wealthy white men in southern colonies often brought along them indentured servants. Despite being another source of unpaid labor, indentured servants are not the same as enslaved workers. Indentured servants were typically poor white men who either sought opportunities in America but lacked funds or needed to pay off debts. Therefore, they accompanied rich white men across the Atlantic to perform unpaid labor under them for 4-7 years through an agreed contract. After their required time was up, they would be given resources like food and land and were officially declared free in America. This is different from another form of unpaid labor called chattel slavery. Chattel slavery is far more intense and brutal as workers were no longer considered humans but instead property that could be owned. The decline of indentured servitude to chattel slavery through the English colonies can be accounted from one of America's earliest rebellions, Bacon's Rebellion. 

    Nathanial Bacon was a Virginian farmer who, like many other farmers and indentured servants, were not corporative with the surrounding Native population. Due to things such as territorial disputes over limited land, a lot of tension between the colonists and Natives arose. Bacon personally went to the Virginian governor Sir William Berkely over these grievances and to his displease, received little support or attention. Therefore, Bacon took it upon himself to rally up likeminded farmers and indentured servants to attack the nearby Native groups, which then shifted towards disrupting Berkely's plantations. While the rebellion was stopped before anything drastic happened, elite planters and wealthy plantation owners realized the potential dangers of utilizing indentured servants. So there began the shift from indentured servitude to chattel slavery particularly from Africa who, according to the colonists, would be more compliant and less likely to cause elaborate uprisings. 

    Moving on, as the English colonies were physically very distant from their host country, Great Britain, they began to develop their own forms of regional democratic governments like the Mayflower Compact (Massachusetts) and the House of Burgesses (Virginia). These assemblies had their own respective powers and rights such as levying taxes and hosting elections. Of course, at this time only white male property owners could vote though and especially in the middle and southern colonies, these governments were run and dominated by the wealthy elites. Back to the mother country Great Britain, while American colonies had the ability to create their own laws and self-govern themselves, the main goal had always been to contribute back to mercantilism. Mercantilism, defined by Fiveable, is an "economic system that focuses on growing a nation’s wealth by exporting easily produced goods in exchange for limited imports". Basically, the colonies were an extension of the mother country and sent raw materials for the dominant country to export elsewhere. The main emphasis to making income here is having more exports than imports. By about the mid 1600's, Great Britain had also passed the Navigations Act which were a series of laws that controlled trade and shipping between Great Britain and the American Colonies. In order to promote mercantilist policies, Britain restricted colonial trade with other nations and ensured that trading mainly occurred through British ports with British supervision. This was mainly to prevent Dutch merchants from becoming the "middleman" in between the trades and to maximize profits to Great Britain. However, this hurt the colony's economy and resulted in many participating in something called salutary neglect. Due to Britain's lax enforcement towards the Navigations act (as they were undergoing their own domestic problems), many colonial merchants disobeyed the policies and traded outside Britain anyways. This seemingly innocent resistance foreshadows larger grievances depicted in Unit 3. However, in the larger picture of this time period, world trade was very prosperous and the Triangular Trade Route continued to be at its highest and most profitable since Columbus's influence in the Americas. Ships from New England carried rum to West Africa in exchange for enslaved workers to be carried to the West Indies via the brutal Middle Passage. From there, sugar cane would be cultivated and brought back to New England and the cycle continued. 

    As indentured servitude grew more distrustful for the elites, chattel slavery soon made up most of America's unpaid agricultural labor force. Slave codes, laws that aimed to strip slaves from their autonomy and personal liberties, were applied to force submission and control. Evidentially, not all enslaved workers accepted this system, and many resisted in one of two ways. The first was covert resistance: keeping cultural beliefs, heritage, or faking illness to not work. The second more notable was Overt resistance which used violence as a way to resist. A prime example of this was the Stono Rebellion where in 1739, South Carolinian enslaved workers stole weapons from a store, burned down plantations, and killed numerous white colonists before being forcefully shut down. Still, most white elites preferred Chattel slavery over indentured servitude by this time. 

    Shifting back to the existing Native population, as English colonies primarily cared about their land, tensions grew heavily between the two coexisting groups. Due to fights over land disputes, Wampanoag chief Metacom led his tribe and others against the English and their native allies they'd acquainted. In the end, Metacom's side had lost, and he was sent to be executed. This was the first attempt at a large-scale Native American resistance to kick out the English, which failed with many casualties. However, it's interesting to note around this time frame, the Pueblo Revolt (as previously mentioned in unit 1) had occurred and won against Spain. Very intriguing parallels. 

Author's Note: mmm bacon['s rebellion]. Also, there were definitely other reasons why there was a major shift from indentured servitude to chattel slavery like the obviously one racism, but college board really likes to test students' ability to detect cause and effect relationships and this was for sure a big one I noticed. 

──── ୨୧ ──── thanks for reading!!! 

⋆｡°✩ Unit 2.1-2.3: The American Colonies *ੈ✩‧₊˚

  Weighted: 6-8% °❀⋆.ೃ࿔*:･°❀⋆.ೃ࿔*:･ 1607-1754

    Unit 2 of AP US history begins on 1607, the establishment of Jamestown (in Virginia). Jamestown is significant as it's the English's first permanent settlement in America (RIP Roanoke). However, before the timeline shifts entirely to English colonies, it's important to go over how 3 other major dominating countries (French, Spain, and the Dutch) went about American colonization and settlement. As my unit 1 posts went further into Spain and French colonization, this will be brief (hint: go to my unit 1 posts if you need a deeper review!). 

Spain:

⋆ 3 G's (God, Gold, & Glory)

⋆ Implemented Encomienda and Caste System

France:

⋆ 1608 Quebec established 

⋆ Fur trade

⋆ Married Natives

⋆ Mutualistic relationship, especially with Ojibwe natives for their beaver pelts

Dutch:

⋆ 1624 New Amsterdam established (modern day New York City)

⋆ Primarily interested in economic benefits; focused on commerce and trade 

⋆ New Amsterdam became a major trading center for merchants, fishers, traders, ect

⋆ Did not want to be involved with Native Americans

England:

⋆ Due to things such as the Enclosure Movement and post-war debt from France, England seeked better economic opportunities and land

⋆ Some seeked religious freedom 

⋆ Instead of conquering Natives, they wanted to remove them and live separately

    Now back to focusing on the English, as priorly mentioned, they were not doing well economically. Therefore, Jamestown was funded by a Joint-Stock Company. A joint-stock company is a company made up of a group of shareholders. Each shareholder contributes some money to the company and receives some share of the company's profits and debts. If a company, in this instance the Virginia Charter, did bad no singular person would be impacted heavily. On the contrary, if a company did well, all shareholders would split the profits and gain economically. Although, the early years of Jamestown were not good. It was marked by disease, starvation, poor leadership, and conflict with nearby Native Americans. This period tested the strength of English's second attempt at a permanent settlement. Fortunately, the only thing that got them out of this miserable era was John Rolfe's discovery and cultivation of the innovative Tobacco plant, which ended up yielding high profits. With the success of Jamestown, other settlements began to arrive. Notably, in 1620 Plymouth (in Massachusetts) was established.

    Plymouth, unlike Jamestown, was an area located further north in New England settled by a group of Pilgrims who wanted to break away from the Protestant Church of England. Through their ship, the Mayflower, pacts of families traveled across the Atlantic to escape persecution, settle land, and find better economic opportunities. Just like Jamestown, their first few years faced many similar struggles, but in the end, the colony persevered. Eventually, Plymouth would merge with the larger colony, Massachusetts Bay, led by Puritan Governor John Winthrop. Residents in Massachusetts Bay who found the colony too religiously intolerant/strict ended up settling nearby land to foster still highly religious, but more tolerant colonies in New England like Rhode Island and Connecticut. 

    The middle colonies, such as previously established New York and New Jersey, continued to prosper due to their thriving export-based economy. While the Dutch had originally discovered New York City, the English would end up owning it. Along the way, Quaker leader William Penn would settle Pennsylvania, a colony known for their tolerance and acceptance of most religions, race, and general peacefulness to nearby Native groups. 

The last colony was the British West Indies. This colony differs as it's not usually grouped together with the other original 13 American colonies. That's because this settlement was located further off in the Caribbeans. Due to yearlong adequate weather, this colony was the most dependent on cash crop exports like tobacco and sugar cane. However, due to how labor-intensive —but in demand— sugar cane was, many enslaved African workers were sent to provide free labor there. It's important to understand the differences between black enslaved workers and white servants on the other colonies, which I'll explain more elaborately on my next post. Just remember, these black enslaved workers were considered property and began to mirror modern American slavery seen later on. It's imperative to understand each colony's similarities and differences from each other. So, below is a more in-depth analysis of each area. 

New England:

→ Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut 

⋆ Geography: Mountainous, rocky soil, large forests, and natural harbors, long cold winters

⋆ Economy: ship building, merchant trade, lumber, fishing

⋆ Population: Mainly families, younger people, limited servants, very religious

Middle:

→ New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware

⋆ Geography: fertile soil, rivers, moderate summers/winters

⋆ Economy: skilled trades, agriculture, *mixed economy*

⋆ Population: families, immigrants (Dutch/German/Scottish), limited servants, Quakers, highly tolerant

South:

→ Georgia, North Carolina, Virginia, Maryland

⋆ Geography: fertile land, moist soil, longest summers, warm weather

⋆ Economy: agriculture, plantations, cash crops

⋆ Population: Mainly young wealthy men (planter elites), lots of poor servants accompanied by the wealthy, enslaved African workers, economically-driven

West British Indies:

→ The Caribbeans

⋆ Geography: fertile land, moist soil, longest summers, warm weather

⋆ Economy: agriculture, plantations, cash crops

⋆ Population: Enslaved African workers (at one point there were more enslaved African workers than white men), wealthy white men

Additional Terms:

⋆ Cereal crops: Staple crops like wheat, grains, and rye cultivated mainly in middle colonies

⋆ Chesapeake: The grouping of Maryland and Virginia

⋆ Anne Hutchinson: a Puritan leader formerly in Massachusetts who challenged the established religious norms of her time as a woman. She helped found Rhode Island alongside Roger Williams in order to establish less strict religious policies and the separation of church and state

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⋆｡°✩ Unit 1.5-1.6: The Caste/Encomienda System *ੈ✩‧₊˚

 Weighted: 4-6% °❀⋆.ೃ࿔*:･°❀⋆.ೃ࿔*:･ 1491-1607

   With the rapidly decreasing Native population and further resistance, European settlers looked towards the addition of enslaved African workers for agricultural labor. As a result, a global trade system was formed.

    The worldwide trade between enslaved workers, raw materials, and manufactured goods is known as the Triangular Trade Route. Africa supplied inexpensive enslaved workers across the Atlantic Ocean to places in the Americas like Brazil and/or the Caribbeans. Then, America supplied raw materials to Europe and in turn, Europe sent manufactured goods back to the Americas and Africa. This vastly growing trade network around the continents greatly contributed to economic prosperity around the world and fostered more capitalistic ideals mentioned previously. However, alongside economic success began the high growing percentage of African slave labor. More specifically, the transfer of enslaved workers from Africa to the Americas is known as the Transatlantic Slave Trade. About 10-12 million Africans were forced into and transferred across the Atlantic Ocean to become enslaved laborers. The voyages itself are recollected today as the Middle Passage and these trips were known for their brutal, unsanitary, and inhumane conditions. An overwhelming number of African men, women, and children were tightly confined and chained onboard for the entire duration of the trip. Many became sick and unfortunately passed away before even landing. 

    As a result of the mix of European colonizers, Africans, and remaining Native Americans, a hierarchical social class based on race and nationality was formed in America called the Caste System. The following is how each group ranked:

The Caste System:

Peninsulares: Individuals born in Spain; they held the highest social status and privileges.

↓

Creoles: Individuals born in America but are of pure Spanish ancestry. 

↓

Castas: Mixed-race individuals 

Mulattos: Spanish and African blood     Mestizos: Spanish and Native blood

↓

Native Americans and Africans

    It's important to note that this social hierarchy was specific to the Spanish and that other countries did not adopt this. In fact, Native American had different relationships with various countries. For example, the French generally had a more peaceful and mutual relationship with Native Americans. As the French was heavily involved in the Fur trade at the time, they traded Fur in exchange for guns and western weapons to Natives. In addition, they provided militia protection without the intent for religious conversion and unlike the Caste system, even supported mixed racial marriages between the French and Natives. For the English, they were less involved, especially after the first unsuccessful attempt at a permanent American colony (Roanoke).

    While it's generally depicted that the Spanish were completely intolerant of Native Americans, there were periods of genuine curiosity and interest. Commonly, Europeans admired their housing and complex agricultural systems and harking back to religious ideals, often thought Natives just needed to convert to Christianity. However, the majority of Tribes already had deep-rooted spiritual beliefs and either quietly suppressed Catholicism or, as seen in the Pueblo Revolt, outrightly denied conversion. The Pueblo Revolt of 1680 was a violent revolt against Spanish rule over the Pueblo people in modern day Mexico City. The Pueblos did not like how Spain imposed Catholicism and was able to successfully overthrow Spanish colonization for 12 years. 

    Also, an important figure during this unit was Bartolome De Le Cases. He was a Spanish priest, but unlike the majority, heavily disapproved the treatment and dehumanization of Native Americans. Through his writings, he shamed conquistadors and encomenderos that abused and used Native Americans for labor and such. With the invention and popularization of the printing press, his writings were able to be reached globally. Surrounding countries read about the cruel treatment imposed by Spain and there developed the Black Legend. The Black Legend was a series of criticism directed towards Spain that was backed up by De Le Cases's and other's books. This was mainly adopted by Protestant countries like Great Britain, which used these writings to inflict criticize to Catholicism as a whole. As a result, reforms were gradually placed on the Encomienda system until it began to fade away. While Native American slave labor began to grow unpopular, African enslavement was continued and pushed as an alternative. This idea would be heavily expanded and seen in Unit 2. 

Additional Terms:

⋆ Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda: typically seen opposing Bartolome De Le Cases; he defended Native American colonization and backed up the Encomienda system 

⋆ Sir Walter Raleigh: Led the first attempt at a permanent English colony (Roanoke). Obviously failed. 

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⋆｡°✩ Unit 1.3-1.4: The Columbian Exchange *ੈ✩‧₊˚

Weighted: 4-6% °❀⋆.ೃ࿔*:･°❀⋆.ೃ࿔*:･ 1491-1607

    

    1492 was certainly quite the year. Remember: 1492, Columbus sailed the ocean blue. If you're still lost, that was the year Spanish explorer, Christopher Columbus accidentally discovered and colonized the Americas. While the most obvious major idea presented here is the Columbian exchange, it's imperative to understand the events leading up to his voyage as well. 

European Trade Routes:

    During the 14th and 15th century, many European countries were going through a renaissance and "rebirth" of new technological advancements. Alongside a wave of political reforms unifying the monarchy, riches during this era were heavily desired. With Asia having the best goods at this time, in order for Spain to seek these wealths, they'd have to bypass Muslim-controlled land trading posts that blocked the route from Europe to Asia. So, instead they turned to maritime based routes for trade. However, Portugal was quicker and already settled maritime based trading posts for themselves. This is where Christopher Columbus came into the picture. With a sponsorship from King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain, he was approved to set sail on his voyage of finding a "shorter route to India". While many today believed he thought the Earth was flat and that's how he got his geography wrong, that's false. Most explorers during this time period understood the Earth was round, however had misconceptions about how large the Earth truly was. Columbus failed to take in account a whole 'nother continent when attempting to sail westward. Even though Columbus soon realized he was in fact not in Asia, he ended up discovering potential valuables from the independent Native groups present in the Caribbeans where he and his men arrived. Soon enough, word got around of this prosperous land and there developed the initial exchange between the New World (America) and the Old World (Afro-Eurasia). 

The Columbian Exchange:

    The Columbian Exchange, defined by Fiveable, was the "widespread transfer of plants, animals, foods, human populations, and diseases between the Americas and the rest of the world following Christopher Columbus's voyages in the late 15th century". While many reduce this process to simply food and cattle, this new wave of world trade greatly influenced things beyond materialistic items. One key example was the shift from a feudalistic society to a capitalist; as trade increased, commerce became increasingly important and political power shifted from large landowners to wealthy merchants.

New World → Old World                                               Old World → New World

⋆ corn                                                                               ⋆ coffee beans

⋆ tomatoes                                                                        ⋆ livestock

⋆ potatoes                                                                         ⋆ grains

⋆ pumpkins                                                                      ⋆ grapes

⋆ tobacco                                                                         ⋆ so, so many deadly diseases

    One of the most critical results from the Columbian Exhange was the transfer of deadly diseases to Native Americans. While most people in the Old World were already used to diseases like smallpox, measles, and influenza, which therefore built up better immunity, Native American groups had never been exposed to such distinct diseases and could not adequately adapt in such a short time span. Quick, contagious exposure of these diseases resulted in a large death toll for Native populations. This is important to remember as that was a major contributor in the success of European colonization in the Americas. Major empires became easier to dissemble, which led to the enslavement of many Native American tribes. In order to foster agricultural and mining production, the Encomienda system was established. The Encomienda system, defined again by Fiveable, was a "labor system instituted by the Spanish crown during the colonization of the Americas, where Spanish settlers were granted the right to extract labor and tribute from Indigenous peoples in exchange for protection and religious instruction". While Spanish encomenderos forced Natives into labor, they also provided them with benefits such as militia protection and education. It's essential to understand while this was a form of enslavement, it differs heavily from modern American slavery. Native Americans still had some form of autonomy over themselves and weren't completely dehumanized. In fact, as religion was one of the major factors in expansion, many priests wanted to convert Natives to Catholicism in order for them to obtain these benefits. In their minds, they wanted to "save" them as they thought Natives needed saviour. Of course, not all Natives were compliant to labor and conversion and especially since everything stayed on America, Natives had the advantage of knowing more of the landscape and being able to escape. Alongside the decreasing overall Native American population, European colonizers had to find another way to supply cheap labor. This is where imported enslaved Africans arrived at America. 

Additional Terms:

⋆ Treaty of Tordesillas: agreement between Spain and Portugal aimed at settling conflicts over lands newly discovered or explored by Christopher Columbus and other late 15th-century voyagers.

⋆ Feudalism: a political system which emerged during the Middle Ages which incentivized peasants to work on nobles' land for protection and wealth.

⋆ Encomenderos: Spanish settlers who were granted the right to enforce labor on native populations. 

Author's Note: World history is not my strong suit, but I hope this recap was good enough! Don't worry Leif Erikson, I still remember you! 

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⋆｡°✩ Unit 1.1-1.2: Native American Tribes *ੈ✩‧₊˚

   

Weighted: 4-6% °❀⋆.ೃ࿔*:･°❀⋆.ೃ࿔*:･ 1491-1607

     The AP US history curriculum's first unit begins on 1491 as this date marked the last year before foreign external influences would colonize the Americas and completely alter previously established Native culture and societies. The largest focus here is on Native American tribes and their regional differences and dependence based on surrounding environmental factors. The most important idea conveyed here was that not every Native group were the same. 

Native American Culture of the Southwest: 

→ Located in present day Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico

⋆ Food: heavy on farming and agriculture, grew crops such as squash, beans, and corn

⋆ Environmental factor: due to hot and dry climate, they built complex irrigation systems alongside permanent villages

⋆ Tribes included: Pueblo, Navajo, Apache

Native American Culture of the Southeast:

→ Located in present day Florida Peninsula and Gulf of Mexico

⋆ Food: farmed, hunted, and fished things such as deer and berries.

⋆ Environmental factor: slashed/burned fields, built mounts for religious reasons and chiefdoms

⋆ Tribes included: Cherokee, Choctaw, Seminole

 

Native American Culture of the Northeast:

→ Located in present day Canada, east coast, Ohio River Valley, and Appalachian Mountains

⋆ Food: farmed, hunted, and gathered

⋆ Environmental factor: lived permanent. stationary lifestyles and developed strong political structure

⋆ Tribes included: Wampanoag, Powatan, and Iroquois 

Native American Culture of the Plains:

→ Located in present day central America, Great Plains, and Rocky Mountains

⋆ Food: hunted and gathered things such as elk, bison, and fruits

⋆ Environmental factor: due to limited resources and an arid climate, they were nomadic (always moving), lived in tipis, and rode horses

⋆ Tribes included: Sioux, Comanche, and Ute

Native American Culture of the West/Northwest:

→ Located in present day California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, and Idaho

⋆ Food: primarily fished, hunted, and gathered things such as bison, salmon, and acorns

⋆ Environmental factor: their diets were often considered very healthy due to abundant, rich natural resources like fresh bodies of water and fertile soil

⋆ Tribes included: Chinook, Alsea, and Tillamook

Additional Terms:

⋆ Three sister farming: cultivating corn, beans, and squash together was very prosperous.

⋆ Maize Cultivation: the agricultural practice of growing maize (corn) which became a staple crop for many Native American societies before European contact. It played a crucial role in diet, culture, and the economy, which in turn allowed for more permanent agricultural communities to emerge.

⋆ Animalism: Refers to the belief that everything from stones to plants and animals to birds has a unique spirit. Many Native Americans believed in this. 

Authors note: This is a detailed inquiry of each tribal region. I would recommend understanding the environmental factors of each region and some examples, however as unit 1 is only 4-6% of the entire AP exam, you'll more likely benefit from focusing on larger ideas presented such as cause-and-effect relationships seen throughout this unit. 

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